Chapter+18+&+19

"The present chapter has given greater offense than any other portion of Machiavelli's writings."
 * Chapter 18: CONCERNING THE WAY IN WHICH PRINCES SHOULD KEEP FAITH**

//Two ways of contesting*
 * contesting: "striving for mastery"//

- This chapter deals with the advice that Machiavelli tries to instill onto his audience, which are the two basic ways of becoming the "perfect prince." Machiavelli states that, there is a norm and an evil which presides the human governing..."You must know there are two ways of contesting, the one by the law, the other by force; the first method is proper to men, the second to beasts..." In order to become a great ruler you must be successful with both of these methods, which leads to what Machiavelli also mentions in his text, that "...one without the other is not durable." Meaning that a prince shiould be able to know how to make use of both natures; not only use one or the other, but both because they work together as one powerful method of human governing. It's like the saying "Two heads are better than one." After stating this, he demonstrates an example of the evil (beast) side of human governing, "A prince, being compelled knowingly to adopt the beast, ought to choose the fox and the lion; because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot defend himself against wolves. Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves." In this example, Machiavelli demonstrates the reasoning of what he had said earlier about that a wise prince must be able to know how to make use of both natures in order to govern and be remembered. If you can't make use of one method or the other, you will not be able to defend yourself from the calamities you will face during your reign because you need to be equipped with both methods in order to take-on the difficulties you will find along the way.

//Relation to Cisero's "De Officiis"//

-It is said that the first passage in this chapter, in which Machiavelli states these ideas, was imitated directly from Cicero's "De Officiis".
 * In Cicero's "De Officis" Cisero states: "Nam cum sint duo genera decetandi, unum per disceptationem, alterum per vim; cumque illud proprium sit hominis, hoc beluarum; confugiendum est ad posterius, si uti non licet superiore." *
 * "For since there are two ways of settling a dispute: first, by discussion; second, by physical force; and since the former is characteristic of man, the latter of the brute, we must resort to force only in case we may not avail ourselves of discussion." (Translation)

//Must know how to duisguise this characteristic (both methods of becoming a "prince")//

- After his advice of how to become the "perfect prince", Machiavelli states that "...it is necessary to know well how to disguise this characteristic, and to be a great pretender and dissembler...he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived." This meaning that you must learn and know to be a false person in order order for people to follow you and do as you say. A person who is a false and looks for people to fall for his dishonesty, in order to rule, be followed, respected and listened to, will always find them. After stating this, Machiavelli uses Alexander VI as an example of a false person by saying that "Alexander the Sixth did nothing esle but decieve men, nor ever thought of doing otherwise, and he always found victims...neverthteless his deceits always succeeded according to his wishes..." It's not necessary for a prince to have great qualities or characteristics, however you must pretend and appear to have them; be a false in order to succeed. Machiavelli mentions "that to have them [good qualities] and always to observe them is injurious, and that to appear to have them is useful; to appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright, and to be so, but with a mind so framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able and know how to change to the opposite."

//Leaving a good "first impression"//

- In this chapter Machiavelli also presents to us how people judge by looks and/or "first impression" and not by how people really are in the inside, "...men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand..." So by Machiavelli saying this, we can tie it back and make a connection to the part where he states that a prince must know how to disguise characteristics he hasn't developed and to be a pretender and dissembler, a false. This connection can be that if you're a false and is able to leave a good "first impression" on people, you will be respected and loved as a great prince because "Everyone sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are, and those few dare not oppose themselves to the opinion of the many." Meaning, a majority will see what you apparently are, a merciful, faithful, humane, religious, and an upright prince, but a minority really know what you are, a false, however, that minority will not go against what the majority thinks of you.


 * Chapter 19: THAT ONE SHOULD AVOID BEING DESPISED AND HATED**

//What to be and not to be//

The one thing superior to all that will cause you to be hated by people is greediness. Machiavelli advices not to be a greedy person and to stay away from man's property in order to avoid being despised and hated. Man's property referring to his home and woman, and family depending if he has children or not. Machiavelli mentions that it should work this way because when people are left alone to live their life peacefully and not be bothered, they live happly. "It makes him hated above all things...to be rapacious [greedy], and to be violator of the property and women of his subjects..." Machiavelli also states to act in certain ways in order to gain great reputation; and with such reputation no one can ever take, and less likely think of taking the power away from you. He mentions that there are certain bad qualities that will succeeded in you being despised and hated by the people and that you should protect yourself from these unwanted characteristics and actions. "It makes him contemptible [hated] to be considered fickle, frivolous, effeminate, mean-spirited, irresolute, from all of which a prince should guard himself as from a rock; and he should endeavour to show in his actions greatness, courage, gravity, and fortitude; and in his private dealings with his subjects let him show that his judgements are irrevocable, and maintain himself in such reputation that no one can hope either to deceive him or to get round him." It will be difficult to go against and try to destroy a prince who has high self-esteem and is confident of what he is doing and completing what is expected from him. However, "...a prince ought to have two fears, one from within, on account of his subjects, the other from without, on account of external powers."

//One of the most important objects of a prince//

The main objective and the most important necessity of a prince is to to keep his people satisfied and contented. In doing so, this will cause greater protection and will create a remedy/medicine, by keeping his people satisfied and happy, against consparicies, who are people looking to satisfy themselves by the prince's removal. These people, conspirators, are full of "...fear, jealousy, prospect of punishment to terrify him..." In this chapter, Machiavelli also mentions that a prince must choose between two: either to protect and defend the people, the unaspiring prince who is peaceful, or to arm and command his soldiers, the warlike prince who is bold, cruel, and rapacious.

//Roman emperors, who some are counter examples and others examples of Machiavelli's opinion//

//***Marcus**//: "he alone lived and died honoured...owed nothing either to the soldiers or the people...was neither hated nor despised." [|More info on Marcus]
 * Pertinax**: "was created emperor against the wishes of the soldiers..." From his case we learn that "...hatred is acquired as much by good works as by bad ones...a prince wishing to keep his state is very often forced to do evil..." [|More info on Pertinax]
 * Alexander**: "...was a man of such great goodness...in the fourteen years he held the empire no one was ever put to death by him unjudged; nevertheless, being considered effeminate and a man who allowed himself to be governed by his mother, he became despised, the army conspired against him, and murdered him." [|More info on Alexander]
 * Commodus**: "to whom it should have been very easy to hold the empire, for, being the son of Marcus, he had inherited it...being by nature cruel and brutal, he gave himself up to amusing the soldiers and corrupting them, so that he might indulge his rapacity upon the people...he fell into contempt with the soldiers...he was conspired against and was killed." [|More info on Commodus]
 * //*Severus//**: "...all, except Severus, came to a bad end; but in Severus there was so much valour that, keeping the soldiers friendly, although the people were oppressed by him, he reigned successfully; for his valour made him so much admired in the sight of the soldiers and people...And because the actions of this man, as a new prince, were great...he knew well how to counterfeit the fox and the lion, which natures...it is necessary for a prince to imitate." [|More info on Severus]
 * Antoninus Caracalla**: "was a most eminent man, and had very excellent qualities...he was a warlike man...beloved by the armies. Nevertheless, his ferocity and cruelties were so great and so unheard of that, after endless single murders, he killed a large number of the people of Rome and all of those of Alexandria. He became hated by the whole world...to such an extent that he was murdered in the midst of his army by a centurion." From his case we learn that "...a prince...has only to be careful not to do any grave injury to those whom he employs or has around him in the service of the state." [|More info on Antoninus Caracalla]
 * Maximinus**: "He was a very warlike man, and the armies...elected Maximinus to the throne. This he did not possess for long, for two things made him hated and despised; the one, his having kept sheep in Thrace, which brought him into contempt, and the other, his having at the accession to his dominions deferred going to Rome and taking possession of the imperial seat...gained a reputation for the utmost ferocity...practised many cruelties...besieging Aquileia...were disgusted with his cuelties, and fearing him less when they found so many against him, murdered him." [|More info on Maximinus]

- "...Marcus, Pertinax, and Alexander, being all men of modest life, lovers of justice, enemies to cruelty, human, and benignant, came to a sad end except Marcus."

- "...Commodus, Severus, Antoninus Caracalla, and Maximinus are all cruel and rapacious men who, to satisfy their soldiers, did not hesitate to commit every kind of iniquity against the people."

- After talking about each emperor individually, Machiavelli says, "...either hatred or contempt has been fatal to the above-named emperors...a number of them acting in one way and a number in another, only one [Marcus] in each way came to a happy end..." This statement rises questions: Is there any way to govern/rule without being killed or wounded? Is it worth going through the process of your reign just to end up dead/murdered?

//The necessity of a prince to take the good of **Marcus** and **Severus**//

- At the very end of the chapter, Machiavelli states that a prince new to the principality, a state (empire) ruled by a prince, must not imitate the footsteps of Marcus, who was heir to the principality, and Severus, "but he ought to take from Severus those parts which are necessary to found [settle] his state, and from Marcus those which are proper and glorious to keep a state that may already be stable and firm." This meaning to take the good qualities of both Marcus and Severus, and unite them as a whole in order to be the "perfect prince".

R.Argueta